SCE3310 Text Summary (Teaching Science For All Children by Martin, et. al.)
The Five Ultimate Science Education Methods
1. Inquiry? Higher level questions - challenging, debatable and difficult to solve; Sequences of activities toward a goal; Planning and connecting; Gathering data; Observing relationships and explanations emerging from data; Relies on authentic assessment.
2. 5 E’s – Engage, Explore, Explain, Expand, Evaluate
3. Science Process Skills – Observe; Communicate; Classify; Measure (metric); Infer; Predict.
I. Observing - Use senses to observe and search for patterns. Observing leads to curiosity, questions and interpretations.
II. Communicating - Graphs, charts, maps, symbols, diagrams… Express ideas, feelings, and thoughts. Communicate with Map’s; Symbolic representation which must contain: Title, Symbol, Key, Scale
Communication for the Classroom
Form groups and have one student think of an object in class and describe it - let the others guess what it is.
Compare current and historical maps.
Ask students - Where does it originate? Have them discuss source of eggs, milk, pencils, clothes, computers, electricity, etc.
III. Classifying - Order with respect to similarities and differences. How are we classified? Demographics, telephone, address, occupation, etc.
Classification for the Classroom
Water Activity - have students experiment with things that float or sink and classify.
Hard boiled egg floating and sinking - one container has dissolved salt.
Group animals in the way they: obtain food; lay eggs or bear live young; habitats, etc.
IV. Measurement - Metric
Making quantitative observation, comparing and classifying items and communicating.
Metric: Volume – Liter; Mass – Gram; Distance - Meter
Measurement for the Classroom
Measure growing plants – record in metric units and graph.
Construct a map of the classroom listing distances in metric units.
Measure shadows at different times of the day in metric units.
V. Inferring - Interpretation of an observation. Recognize patterns and expect to reoccur under same conditions. Form hypothesis based on inferences. Learning is an inference made from observed changes in behavior. Inference Examples
The brass knob is shiny. I infer that the office door is used often.
Through the window I see the windmill moving. It must be windy out.
Inference for the Classroom
Pictures - comics, cartoons, coloring books.
Mystery Boxes - have students shake, feel, smell, etc. using all senses and make inferences about what it in the box.
VI. Predicting - Forecast of what a future observation might be. “If this happens, then what will follow?” Example - I see it raining and the sun comes out. There could be a rainbow.
Two Types of Predictions
Interpolation - predictions made between observed data.
Extrapolation - predictions made beyond observed data.
Predicting for the Classroom
Draw a simple food web, then predict what would happen if one were removed.
Construct an inclined plane, roll a marble - record distance, then raise the plane and repeat - collect data and graph.
Add different amounts of water to bottles and predict sounds and pitch.
Integrated Science Process Skills
Beginning an Investigation - Typically begins with a problem.
“What determines the time it takes water to heat and boil?”
List variables that could affect the heating time of water?
Identifying Variables. A variable is something that can vary.
Variables for Boiling Water - Amount of water, Amount of dissolved material, Shape and material of container, Height above sea level, Type of heat source, Initial temperature
Analyzing Investigations
Recognize parts of an investigation.
What are the variables?
What hypothesis is being tested?
What are the expected outcomes?
How do your variables relate to outcomes?
Is your approach feasible?
Hypothesis Example
What affects how fast a person can run a 100 meter dash?
Experimenting - Culminating experience for science process. Interpreting Graphs
Example Problem
What affects the amount of time it take a seed to sprout?
What is the rate at which a person breathes?
What is the amount of salt that can be dissolved in water?
That is the time it takes to freeze when placed in the freezer?
4. Project-Based Science (PBS)
Method of teaching science that: engages, includes questions, interests, involves a process, is based on research, is aligned with standards.
Overview of PBS - Driving Questions (DQ) - organizes the activities and concepts.
Something that you have always wondered; been in the news; something that does not make sense?
2. Investigations
3. Collaboration
4. Technology
5. Artifacts.
Criteria for Driving Questions
Feasible - able to design investigations
Worthwhile - rich in concepts and related to standards
Contextualized - related to real world issues
Meaningful- useful in your own teaching
Sustainable - something we can pursue in detail over the time period
5. Informal Science Settings - Museum, Aquaria, Zoo; Other – internet, railways, travel…
Chapter 1 What is Science?
Science is a dynamic human enterprise, not a static construct
Science consists of three interrelated parts - attitudes, processes and knowledge
“Whole Science" is the interrelationship of all three parts
Science Proficiency - International Comparisons
U.S. elementary – 9th out of 12 countries
U.S. secondary students rank last in most popular science course: Biology
Average Teaching Minutes Gr1-3
Average number of minutes/day spent teaching each subject for grades 1 - 3.
Average Teaching Minutes Gr4-6
Average number of minutes/day spent teaching each subject for grades 4 - 6.
What is Science? Science is a concept constructed from human activity.
Out of our curiosity, our need to know and the ways we seek, we make discoveries.
Science is the interrelationship of these three factors: attitudes, processes, and knowledge.
Scientific Attitudes
Fact – Reality; actuality; truth
Concept – a general idea or understanding that is derived from specific experiences.
Principle – a basic truth or law or assumption
Theory - belief that can guide behavior
Formula from the National Science Education Standards:
Attitudes (intrinsic) + Processes (science process) + Knowledge (facts, concepts, principals,theories)
Whole Science
Chapter 2 – Learning Science?
Central Concepts
Prior ideas and pre/mis/conceptions
Needs affect what and how they learn
Theories used to explain how we learn
Experiences help construct what is learned
Cerebral Cortex. Neurons Make Connections: Connections Define Learning
The Synaptic Gap. Brain Research For Teaching. Making connections makes learning.
Stimulate the senses through multiple experiences. Form and strengthen neural connections through experience. Promote proper exercise, rest, NUTRITION and hydration.
What Ideas Influence Children's Learning? Preconceptions; Misconceptions; Conceptions;
Preconceptions -ideas brought from prior experiences; often incomplete understandings of fundamental concepts; attempts to explain the world; influenced by hands-on, minds-on; thoughtful efforts to make (construct) sense; influenced by bias and culture
Misconceptions - represent explanations of phenomena as a response to a prior experience. alternative understandings that are incorrect and based on simple inaccurate comprehension. require time to correct, but can be avoided when constructed carefully from experiences; can be revealed through experiences that are accompanied by dialogue Stimulate Thinking (use 5 senses); Encourage Physical Activity; Stimulate Socialization; Build Self-Esteem; Fit their own Pace (time factor)
The Dominant Perspective for science education is currently Constructivism emphasizes the active role of the learner: mentally, physically and socially.
"A theory that assumes knowledge cannot exist outside the learner ... knowledge is a construction of the learner's reality."
Constructivist Teachers learning opportunities that are meaningful; encourage to make real decisions; encourage peers to exchange views in order to refine thinking and deepen understanding; hands-on, minds-on learning to promote the interplay of what is known and new ideas; value prior ideas; urge to identify mental discrepancies linked to prior ideas.
Jean Piaget developmental model - Stage development – sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete, formal.
Thesis revolves around "Equilibration" where experience create dilemmas and conflict; learner is biologically driven to regain equilibrium
"Assimilation" is adapting new information to structures formed from prior experiences
"Accommodation" is the formation of new mental structures
Chapter 3 – Inquiry for All Children
Central Concepts
• science is for ALL, irrespective of culture, language, gender, learning style
• ALL can learn and benefit from science
• parents can help children's special needs
Science For ALL Children
Science is essential for: • developing basic skills • bridging cultural differences • constructing or strengthening language • overcoming gender stereotypes • accommodating learning style
Multiple Cultures Among Children Include: • racial background • religion • ethnicity • economics • language differences • gender
NSTA Position on Multicultural Science Ed
• provide access and experiences for all • materials and strategies encourage diversity • aware of learning styles • expose all children to career opportunities
Language Differences “Demonstrate” teaching model focus instruction on “language functions”; encourage study aids; stimulate physical learning; reduce test anxiety
Gender - Overcoming inequality, grouping, expectations, role models, stronger preparation, aware of bias
Gardner approach – Linguistic, Logical-mathematical, Spatial, Bodily kinesthetic, Musical, Interpersonal, Intrapersonal, Naturalist
Exceptional Learners Include children who have: • Learning Disabilities • Intellectual Handicaps • Physical Disabilities • Talents and/or Intellectual Gifts
Chapter 4: Planning Inquiry Lessons and Chapter 5: Student Performance
Central Concepts
Planning helps learners develop attitudes, skills and ideas
Plans must address NSES
Evaluate appropriately – formative/summative with rubrics
Planning Inquiry Lessons
• Is there a variety of activities to accommodate student learning styles?
• Can you do the activity first, then introduce special vocabulary?
• Do you have key questions that can be used to stimulate interaction?
• Are the lessons focused on concept development?
Performance Objective
Audience - "each fourth grade child"
Behavior - "will build a structure"
Conditions - "given plastic drinking straws, straight pins, thread, tape, clay and paper clips"
Degree - "that is at least 30 cm tall, uses at least three triangles, and supports at least ten washers."
Authentic Assessment - • do not rely on unrealistic time constraints • are connected with standards • point toward effective ways of using knowledge • contain contextualized, complex challenges • mastery of content is a means to an end • assess process, not restricted to recall
requires student to reconsider and use knowledge differently, encourages students to use a variety of approaches to solve a problem, may require more than one step in arriving at a solution
Hands-On Assessment - assessing skills in how children use
science tools, use own data and
to create own problems, requires one to think about and analyze
Rubrics - teacher or student-made devices, such as check-lists, scales, specific criteria, make expectations clear, to improve work, and to assess accurately, two questions guide rubrics:
What info should go into the response? How should the info be presented?
Rubistar.com
Student Self-Assessments contributes to authenticity, formal or informal, illustrated by portfolios, purpose is to “tell a story”, contain self-selected best work, demonstrate problem-solving, types of thinking, illustrated by journals, demonstrates student’s reflective thinking
Chapter 6 Inquiry for Scientific Literacy?
Central Concepts
• science is basic subject and affects our lives
• reform efforts meet needs in a changing society
• new science program and teaching goals arise from research and collaboration
• science goals support whole science concept
• National Science Education Standards (NSES) provide new dimensions
What Is Scientific Literacy?
According to the National Research Council: person can ask for and determine answers to questions stimulated by curiosity, ability to explain and predict natural phenomena, ability to read and understand scientific articles, identify scientific issues and express positions that underlie national and local decisions, evaluate the quality of information of its sources, capacity to pose and evaluate arguments based on evidence and conclusions.
Science Attitudes - promote creativity, foundation for good health habits, develop math skills, inspiration for art and music, feed development of self-esteem
Project Synthesis
National research findings revealed: lack of support for science instruction, textbooks dominated what science is taught, goals emphasized science content
Four Outcomes: Use science to enhance learner’s Development ; Interrelationships of Science, Tech and Society; Develop Academic and Process Skills; Expand Career Awareness
Goals of NSES - Science programs provide experiences: personally and socially relevant to the child, wide range of experiences so students can analyze personal and societal issues critically
encourage students to demonstrate understanding and impact that science has on their lives
help students develop an appreciation for the natural world
NSES Science Content Outcomes
4 New Dimensions of Science Content Goals: Science as Inquiry; Science and Technology; Science in Personal and Social Perspectives; History and Nature of Science
Chapter 7 Questioning and Inquiry
Central Concepts
use different types of questions
questioning influence achievement, attitudes and thinking
use questions to instruct, control and evaluate
low and high level questions carry different impact
teachers can improve questioning skills
Four types of questions: Memory questions establish facts. Convergent questions have one correct answer. Divergent questions have several answers, promote thinking. Evaluative questions promote decision making and defensible judgment.
Why Do Teachers Use Questions? motivate and to interest;
reveal prior (mis)conceptions
and evaluate; guide thinking; discipline, manage or control; give listening
cues; diagnose strengths, weaknesses; relate concepts
Wait Time
WT#1 - length of time teacher waits after asking question
WT#2 - length of time teacher waits after receiving answer before continuing
average is less than 1 second and recommended average WT is 3-5 sec.
Questions Used in Texts/Tests - low level questions devoted to facts
~ 95% items are Bloom's Knowledge and Comprehension
recommend teacher screen text/tests, adapt or supplement
Keys to Effective Questioning - plan specific questions as a guide; ask simple, concise and direct questions; use wait time and explain it to students; listen to if responses match the level; stimulate wonder and puzzling thoughts; talk less and ask more; encourage complete and complex answers; vary question types to encourage all students
Stimulate Children's Questions - use interesting materials and encourage direct experiences; model good questioning skills and use questions to construct connections; develop an atmosphere of trust and encourage productive questions; respond in an encouraging way
Chapter 9: Safety: Creating A Safe, Efficient, Inquiry-Based Science Classroom
educational value and foreseeable hazards must be considered
must understand legal responsibilities and attend to safety
storage and accessibility of materials
1/3 of 1200 science educators knew that OSHA set the safety standards for science.
less than 1 in 15 knew the appropriate class size for the NSES-based curriculum.
less than 6% knew the Due Care duties teachers must satisfy to prevent allegations of personal negligence as a result of injury.
hazards can be eliminated when prepared for in advance - such as wearing goggles, having fire blankets, extinguishers and eyewash stations available
teacher demonstrations can provide a safe alternative to student exploration
tort - a wrong or injury committed against someone else
reasonable and prudent judgment - teachers need to ask themselves if this is the same judgment one with similar training would make?
foreseeability - teachers are responsible for reporting safety deficiencies, a written account of missing safety items and/or hazards
negligence - failure to exercise due care
due care - duty to protect the students through instruction, supervision and maintenance
due care through instruction - rules should be written and explained; students should participate in signing a safety contract; teachers should model safety procedures
teachers should be in the classroom when chemicals are accessible
1:24 teacher:student ratio should be maintained. guardian consent forms obtained for field trips; trip should be an integral part of the curriculum; student to adult ratio (10:1) should be maintained
Federal and State Legislation - when potential for eye injury exists American National Standards Institute Z87 eyewear must be provided
Bloodborne pathogens - identify work practices to minimize exposure risk
OSHA Hazard Communication Standard (a.k.a.) "Right to Know Law" - requires all chemicals are properly stored and labeled, teachers must know of potential hazards
Chemical hygiene plan - develop plan for identifying and dealing with chemical hazards
hot plates with an on/off indicator
avoid use of extension cords
electrical outlet caps should be in place
if candles are used they should be placed in a pan of damp sand to prevent the spread of hot wax
flammable liquids should be stored in small quantities
hair pulled back, loose clothing pinned out of the way
fire blankets should be of a manageable size, taught the stop-drop-and-roll procedure
All Materials Must Be Stored Safely
Room Arrangement For Safety
Chapter 10 Ed Tech
“Depends upon society and application.”
“Consumers must perceive that the value is greater than the cost.”
Key Questions - What is available? Is it useful, meaningful and applicable? Is the time worth it?
Am I ready to modify my approach? What works?
Instructional Technology Pie
How Do Teachers use Computers?
Is the Use of Tech Overemphasized?
Roadblocks to Technology?
Why Integrate Technology?
Increases ATTENTION
Presents relevance and context for lifelong learning
Adds power, depth and flexibility to instruction; Hands-on promotes Information Processing
Information Processing
Research Perspectives - Participate more easily and to
enjoy learning more
(Palmieri, ‘99). Flexibility and efficiency as well as individual attention
(Huang, ‘97). Actively constructing their own knowledge. (Follansbee, ‘98).
Pragmatic Approach - Nation on Technology and Education
(Dept of Ed, 1998)
As fundamental as traditional skills such as reading, writing and math.
Sample ON-LINE Resources - Virtual Dissections; Geography;
Math; Communication; Virtual
Expeditions; Virtual Dissections
Frog - http://curry.edschool.virginia.edu/go/frog/
Pig - http://mail.fkchs.sad27.k12.me.us/fkchs/vpig/
Cow Eye - http://www.exploratorium.edu/learning_studio/cow_eye/
Human Brain - http://www.vh.org/Providers/Textbooks/BrainAnatomy/BrainAnatomy.html
Cockroach - http://everest.ento.vt.edu/~carroll/insect_video_dissection.html
Tech Through Geography; Visual Physics
Virtual Tours - Louvre; Guidebooks
Virtual Community - TappedIn2
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To Photograph the Great White Bear - http://www.21stcenturyadventures.com/articles/polarbear.html
Sample OFF-LINE Resources - Video and Audio, Document Camera, Digital Cameras, Scanners, Personal Digital Assistants, Smart Pad, Handheld Wireless –
Instructional Technology Issues
Many Encourage the Use of Technology
Capacity and Bandwidth, Training, Maintenance, Support, Time, Resources
If Wireless Solutions are Proposed
Security, Connection Speed, Compatibility
Communication, Education, Training and Support.
Chapter 11 – Resources for Best Practices
Dominant Beliefs: Science … should be learned by ALL; is a way of learning; is important for its own sake; affects everyone; must be taught in a practical way so that it can be used
Science - A Process Approach - assumed skill development most important; highly structured, uses behavioral psychology; developed skills hierarchy: basic & integrated; produced significant gain in student skill development; improved gains in science attitudes and achievement
What Works? Hands-on, minds-on approaches are superior to direct, prescriptive approaches:
produce greatest gains in achievement, processes, and attitudes, benefit disadvantaged learners, improve thinking, provide intrinsic rewards, improve retention
Supported Assumptions
Effective science programs: have professionally active teachers with knowledge of advances and future vision; have a conceptual focus and use student-centered teaching methods; select content carefully and make it useful; attempt to cover less material, but have the learners do more to learn at a greater depth
Future Elementary Schools will…
provide conceptual schemes that organize
emphasize fewer concepts, but in greater depth
include tech with science as a learning tool
emphasize science through inquiry
be based on principles of constructivism
